The United States is at a turning point in the push for gender equality in the workforce, according to a recent paper from Cornell.

After decades of progress, gains in labor force participation, job opportunities, and pay for women have slowed or stalled. Without policies to ease work-family conflicts and address discrimination, further improvements are unlikely.

Tranformed roles

The paper outlines the transformation of women’s roles in the workforce after World War II. Rather than sudden social upheaval, progress came through steady, reinforcing changes in labor force participation, education, occupations, and wages.

Rising wages, anti-discrimination laws, and shifting social attitudes helped drive this change in the U.S. and abroad. At the same time, lower birthrates, better birth control, and technological advances that reduced housework made it easier for women to pursue careers.

But by the 1990s, progress slowed, particularly in the U.S. compared to other developed countries.

Slowed progress

“We saw a major rise in women’s labor force participation from the late 1940s to the 1990s,” the researchers note. “Since then, while we haven’t regressed, we haven’t seen further increases. Other developed countries have moved ahead.”

One example is the gender wage gap. In the past, men earned more because they had more work experience and were more likely to hold college degrees. As women gained experience and education, the gap narrowed.

“Closing the experience and education gap helped reduce the wage gap,” the authors explain. “But now that women are more likely than men to graduate from college and the experience gap has nearly disappeared, those factors won’t drive further gains.”

Narrow concentration

Women have made strides in traditionally male-dominated fields like law, medicine, and management. However, they remain concentrated in female-dominated jobs such as teaching, nursing, and administrative work, while still underrepresented in STEM and blue-collar trades.

The stagnation in women’s workforce participation may reflect the difficulty of balancing work and family without supportive policies. Challenges include longer work hours for skilled workers, unpredictable schedules for lower-wage workers, and limited flexibility for both.

Family-friendly policies—such as paid parental leave, the right to part-time work, and subsidized childcare—are more generous in many other developed countries than in the U.S.

“Childcare in the U.S. is in crisis,” the authors note. “Even before COVID, we lagged behind other industrialized nations. The pandemic only worsened the situation, driving up costs and pushing many childcare workers out of the field. Many areas now have ‘childcare deserts.'”

Fractured efforts

While the U.S. has been slow to adopt family policies, it has led the way in anti-discrimination laws, such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Executive Order 11246 of 1965, which required federal contractors to reduce racial and gender disparities, was another landmark policy.

“That order significantly increased opportunities and wages for women and minorities without lowering hiring standards,” the researchers say. “Unfortunately, it was rescinded by President Trump.”

While past policies have been important, new and more proactive measures may be needed. Given political divisions at the federal level, state-level reforms may offer the best path forward. Two policies gaining traction are salary history bans and pay transparency laws.

The way ahead

Salary history bans prevent employers from asking job candidates about past earnings, which helps break the cycle of underpayment that can follow women and minorities from job to job.

Pay transparency laws also help. Research shows women are less likely than men to negotiate for higher pay. Transparency allows workers to compare salaries and push for fair wages.

“One challenge with anti-discrimination laws is that enforcement fluctuates depending on the administration,” the authors conclude. “Legal battles can also take years, requiring someone to first experience discrimination, file a case, and wait for resolution.

“Newer policies like salary history bans and pay transparency take a more proactive approach. That makes them especially promising.”